Critical Review

一、引言段（Introduction）

Language frames every aspect of our life, how we think, what we see, how we communicate and what we do. The journey of human language acquisition begins at birth and continues through to our adult years. Many theorists have argued about what influences this journey of language development in humans. This essay will discuss the stages of language development and the related theories of Burrhus Skinner and Noam Chomsky. It will also discuss the factors within our home and school environments that influence our language development, and how these, in turn, affect our language and literacy learning throughout our schooling years.（内容逻辑：简要引入"语言如何影响我们的生活"，明确写作目的与范围：语言发展阶段、两个理论、家庭与学校因素，起到了合格的"提纲式引言"作用。）

二、主体部分（Body）

（1）语言发展阶段 + Skinner 理论

When children are first born, their desire to communicate flourishes and so begins their journey of language development (Nagel & Scholes, 2016). Burrhus Skinner states that language development occurs from the influences of environmental factors, such as learning through reinforcement (Nagel & Scholes, 2016). Through either classical or operant conditioning, Skinner believes that children learn when their actions result in a positive or negative outcome, such as praise or punishment (Nagel & Scholes, 2016)（内容逻辑：按年龄段描述语言发展过程，结合 Skinner 行为主义理论解释"学习机制"，清晰地将理论与发展阶段结合。）. Skinner believes that children learn the same way when they develop language.[4. 理论支持：本篇文章在理论框架上表现较强，综合引用了 Skinner 的行为主义理论，引用充分、文献权威，引用格式（APA）基本正确；能结合理论阐述发展阶段和外部影响因素。]

From birth to three months, children will cry in a certain way to express when they are experiencing a certain form of discomfort (Emmitt, Zbaracki, Komesaroff, & Pollock, 2015; National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders [NIDCD], 2017). Therefore, parents are able to identify what the child is trying to communicate and will respond appropriately (Emmitt et al., 2015; NIDCD, 2017). According to Skinner, this form of conditioning allows the child to understand the important value of communication and so their language continues to develop the same way (Nagel & Scholes, 2016).

From four to twelve months, children will make cooing sounds, begin smiling, and can recognise faces, voices, words, and some objects and toys (NIDCD, 2017). [1. 事件/经历的描述:该文清晰描述了语言发展的各个阶段，并结合现实家庭和学校背景，使用实例性的描述铺陈了语言发展的过程和外部影响因素，展示了一定的"经历感"。] Around this age children will also begin using a protolanguage known as babbling (Emmitt et al., 2015). From one to two years, children move into the holophrase stage. During this stage children begin speaking one to two word utterances such as, "Where doggy?" or, "More food", they have a vocabulary of over ten words, engage in simple play acting and they learn to ask basic questions. According to Skinner, when these holophrases are responded to, children begin to learn the meaning behind the words and phrases they are using, thus increasing their vocabulary (Arizona SLHS, 2013; Nagel & Scholes, 2016).

（2）Chomsky 理论对比

By three to four years, children enter a stage of telegraphic speech and start to use simple grammar [1. 事件/经历的描述] (Nagel & Scholes, 2016). They can construct sentences with four or more words, they can speak more fluently, they can answer basic questions and engage in play-acting of everyday routines (Arizona SLHS, 2013; NIDCD, 2017). By the time a child reaches five and through to age six, their vocabulary would have grown to approximately 2,000 words and they can understand at least 10,000 words, they can tell structured stories, can speak first and last names, and possibly even remember phone numbers and addresses (Arizona SLHS, 2013; NIDCD, 2017). Looking at this timeline of language development in children, while considering the complexity of all the aspects of language, it is safe to say that children develop their language skills at a fast rate. Noam Chomsky argues that Skinner's behaviourism theory does not account for this, and that reinforcement methods are not the most crucial aspect to a child's language acquisition （内容逻辑：阐述 Chomsky 理论：语言获得装置、普遍语法，用来补充或反驳 Skinner 理论解释的不足，有理论对比） (Bjorklund & Causey 2017; Nagel & Scholes, 2016).

Chomsky instead believes that humans are wired with a language acquisition device in our brain that allows us to successfully develop language at a fast rate right from when we are born (Emmitt et al., 2015; Nagel & Scholes, 2016). He believes this is influenced by our cognitive knowledge of 'universal grammar'[5.语言专业：专业术语使用恰当。]. where humans are automatically inclined to aspects of language. Therefore young children are able to understand language and construct phrases in a logical order, without learning about the rules of grammar and speech (Emmitt et al., 2015; Nagel & Scholes, 2016).

（3）语言发展的后续阶段

Between seven and eleven years children's language development will begin to stretch out into a more long and gradual process (I CAN, 2013). In this stage, children will begin to understand other's opinions and decide whether they agree or disagree, they can use long and complex sentences, and can begin and maintain conversations with other children and adults (I CAN, 2013). From twelve to seventeen years, language development is very gradual and hence, less noticeable (I CAN, 2013).（内容逻辑：概述学龄期和青春期语言发展的趋势，衔接后续"家庭"和"学校"的影响，保持时间线的连续性。） Young adolescents can use long sentences more regularly; they can follow complex instructions and identify when they do not understand something; use and understand humour and sarcasm; change conversational topics; and will start to develop various discourses and be able to easily interchange between discourses (I CAN, 2013).

（4）家庭因素影响

Literacy within the family home may be intentionally highlighted throughout a child's language development and it may also occur involuntarily as families go through their daily lives (Morrow, 2009). Direct family members are a child's first, and longest lasting teacher (Morrow, 2009). Accordingly a child's literacy achievements in school will more often reflect on their literacy upbringing at home (Morrow, 2009).（内容逻辑：探讨家庭社会经济状况对语言能力的影响，引用研究支持（如 Morrow 2009）。理论+现实结合。）

（5）学校因素影响

There are many factors that influence both positively and negatively, the language development in home. Children who grow up in higher socio-economic families with well educated professionals for parents who consistently speak with a high level of literacy are said to have a larger vocabulary than those children of a low socio-economic, middle-class or single-parent family (Johnston, 2010; Morrow, 2009). Children who grow up in poverty, low socio-economic or immigrant families do not have access to many books or electronic devices that foster the child's language development (Morrow, 2009). [2.深度反思：文章有对社会经济背景、教育资源差异带来的语言发展影响进行一定讨论。涉及了家庭背景、教育资源等多个维度的影响，具备一定的批判性视角。] In these families, the parents may not always understand the importance of literacy, and may lack the literacy skills for fostering the language development within the home (Morrow, 2009). This can be due to their own intergenerational upbringings (Morrow, 2009).

Language and literacy development throughout schooling is heavily influenced by teachers, peers, curriculum and the culture of the school. [1. 事件/经历的描述:使用实例性的描述铺陈了语言发展的过程和外部影响因素，展示了一定的"经历感"。] Teachers play an important role in the language development of children. Their positive relationship to the child will help establish a feeling of trust and will allow for greater confidence in communication for the student (Croome & Fairhall, 1976). It is imperative for teachers to be aware of their student's language development so they can plan their lessons around broadening and expanding their student's prior knowledge (Croome & Fairhall, 1976). Relationships with peers also hold huge influences on language development of children through to their adolescent years in schooling (Arizona State University, 2006). Arizona State University (2006) states that research shows that playing with peers allows children access into discussing similar feelings, and experimenting with their social and language skills However, language difficulties can also negatively affect a child's ability to interact with peers (Arizona State University, 2006).（内容逻辑：这两段讨论教师、同伴、学校文化、课程对语言发展的作用，强调学校教育的补充或强化作用，构成了与家庭影响的互补。）

A higher importance is placed on literacy in schools as it is a general capability required across the curriculum (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority [ACARA], 2016). The Australian English Curriculum focuses on language lerature and literacy, which will inevitably support the language growth in children and adolescents throughout their schooling years (Australian Curriculum, n.d.). School culture is also an important aspect in shaping the language development of children as they spend the majority of their day at school, so it is inevitable that the language culture of the school, whether it be from the classroom or playground, becomes a part of the child's own language development (Croome & Fairhall, 1976).

（6）语言发展与学业成果的关系

Language development can ultimately facilitate or inhibit literacy throughout a child's schooling years. When family members relate experiences, expand on information and answer questions that children have about the books they are reading, they are enhancing the child's literacy development (Morrow, 2009). Morrow (2009) states that when parents talk through exciting and meaningful everyday experiences with their children, such as going to the shops, they are enhancing the child's literacy development. Therefore, as long as children are consistently being exposed to language which describe everyday situations and experiences, or books and films, their literacy will continue to expand (Morrow, 2009). Having these literacy skills will ultimately facilitate children through their schooling years as they possess a general capability that they can apply to all their subject areas (ACARA, 2016).（内容逻辑：将语言能力与"跨学科学习能力"建立联系，归纳正面与负面影响因素（文化差异、资源匮乏等）。与前文形成因果链条。）

However, children who are not exposed to this kind of literacy may struggle throughout their schooling years. Children who come from diverse cultural backgrounds or low socio-economic families may not have acquired the same level of language development and have hence not exposed to literacy (Morrow, 2009). This may inhibit children's learning across all areas of the curriculum throughout their schooling years (ACARA, 2016). If a child has not been successful throughout their early stages of language development, they will struggle to understand the literacy that exists within their school, home, culture and society.

三、结论段（Conclusion）

In conclusion, it is crucial for parents to be actively involved and aware of their child's language development so they can nurture and guide their child into the foundations of literacy required for a successful journey through school and life. [3.行动计划：给出了家长和教师如何支持语言发展的普遍建议，体现一定实践导向。] Teachers need to remember that every child is unique, and will hence bring to the classroom a unique way of communicating (Croome & Fairhall, 1976). When teachers foster a student's uniqueness, students will feel comfortable to express themselves in their own language, leading to valuable and effective language and literacy development throughout their schooling years (Croome & Fairhall, 1976).

（总结家庭与教师在语言发展中的关键角色，强调"每个孩子独特性"的理解与尊重。有回扣前文的论点。）

[5.]结构清晰：

• 有清晰的引言、主体、结论，段落分明，时间线与主题一致；
• 逻辑由儿童语言发展 → 家庭影响 → 学校影响 → 综合反思，结构流畅。

References

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2016) 8146.0 - Household use of information technology, Australia, 2014-15. Retrieved from http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/mf/8146.0

Australian Curriculum. (n.d.). English. http://www.austreliancurriculum.edu.au/english/curriculum/f-10?layout=1

Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority. (2016). General capabilities. https://www.acara.edu.au/curriculum/general-capabilities

Arizona State University. (2006). Children's peer relationships have enormous influence.

Bjorklund, D. F., & Causey, K. B. (2017). Children's thinking: Cognitive development and individual differences (6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Croome, S., & Fairhall, M. (1976). Child language development and the school. d Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 1(2), 20-27. doi:10.14221/ajte.1976v1n2.3

Emmitt, M., Zbaracki, M., Komesaroff, L., & Pollock, J. (2015). Language and Oxford University Press. learning: An introduction for teaching (6th ed.). South Melbourne, Australia:

I CAN. (2013). Talking point: The first stop for information on children's communication. http://www.talkingpoint.org.uk/ages-and-stages/7-11-years

Johnston, J. (2010). Factors that influence language development. http://www.child encyclopedia.com/sites/default/files/textes-experts/en/622/factors-that influence-language-development.pdf

Critical Reflection 实用指南

Critical Reflection 是什么？

它不只是写"我干了什么"，而是要你用理论分析体验，提出行动方案，推动自我成长。

老师评分重点：

1️⃣ What? -- 描述事件/经历：谁、什么、什么时候、在哪里？
2️⃣ So What? -- 深度反思：为什么这事重要？学习到什么？理论怎么解释？
3️⃣ Now What? -- 行动计划：下一步怎么做？理论如何指导未来行为？
4️⃣ 理论支持：结合课程概念/学术文献
5️⃣ 结构清晰 + 语言专业：三段清楚分出，表达符合学术标准

常见雷区：

写流水账，没有反思
情感泛泛而谈，却没理论支撑
没"下一步"，反思无落地

写作技巧：

明确三段结构
理论对接：引用课堂模型/文献
行动要具体：不是"我会努力"，而是"我会做 X 来改变 Y"

关键词收藏

Critical Reflection / What‑So What‑Now What / Bias Assumption / Reflective Framework / Action Plan / Theory Integration

老师范文示例 ＋ 点评分析（Critical Review 专题）

我们特别挑选了一篇高分 Critical Review 范文，由老师亲自撰写，并配有详细点评，帮助你学会：

• 如何简明扼要地描述经历或案例，为反思奠定基础
• 如何结合具体情境进行深入反思（而不是泛泛讲感受）
• 如何提出切实可行的改进行动计划，体现成长意识
• 如何引用理论支持分析与建议，提升学术深度
• 如何写出结构清晰、语言专业的Critical Review，避免流水账

《Beyond Behaviorism: A Critical Reflection on Child Language Development》高分范文 ＋ 段落拆解分析（建议收藏）

每个段落都附有评分点讲解，助你从思路到表达全面进阶！